|
Banana (Musa
spp)
French: Banane; Spanish: Plátano, Banano; Italian: Banana;
German: Banane
Crop data
Permanent crop with
a succession of herbaceous generations by vegetative sprouting. Mostly
triploid.
Harvested part: fruit (consumed either raw or cooked according to the
cultivar; plantains form a specific group within the cooking cultivars).
Leaf blades are frequently used as wrapping material, especially in
Asia.
Plantations are renewed every 3-5, 10 or 30 years according to region
and cropping system.
Planting material: corms, corm pieces or suckers (tissue-cultured
plantlets are becoming increasingly used for intensive cropping).
Plant density:
- for the Cavendish
group of sweet bananas (which account for nearly all international trade),
1 400 - 3 500/ha, according to sunshine, cultivar, cropping technique
and marketing constraints such as the premium paid for larger-sized
individual fruits. With intensive mechanization and/or very high plant
densities, in widely spaced single or double rows closely planted within
the row; otherwise evenly spaced square or rectangular planting.
- for all other types, 900 - 1 600/ha (exceptionally up to 2 500/ha).
(All figures for single-follower de-suckering technique).
Flowering (plant
crop):
- Cavendish group,
5-10 months after planting, depending on planting material, climate,
irrigation, cultivar and fertilizer use;
- other types, a shorter interval for a few small-sized diploids and
longer for plantains etc;
- (ratoon crop): interval after harvest of previous crop is less than
for plant crop but varies with de-suckering technique.
Time from flowering
to harvest: 80-180 days for both plant and ratoon crops, depending
mainly on climate ("heat sum").
Thus, for the Cavendish group the interval between successive harvests
is 7-15 months, depending on climate, cultivar and cropping techniques.
Bananas are grown on many soil types; physical qualities are more
important than chemical composition, because the roots are fragile, with
a low penetrating power and a great need of oxygen. Preferred pH about
6.0, but successful crops may be obtained down to pH 4.0 without liming,
where exchangeable Al is low (peat soils), - or up to pH 8.5 where
potential metal deficiencies are well controlled or non-existent. Water
requirements are high (150 mm/month) and water absorption capacity is
low, so irrigation, of whatever kind (overhead, microjet, drip, etc),
should maintain soil moisture within 60-100 % of the range between
permanent wilting point and field capacity.
Nutrient demand/uptake/removal
|
Nutrient removal (harvested fruit, Cavendish group) -
Macronutrients
|
|
kg/t whole bunches
|
|
N
|
P2O5
|
K2O
|
MgO
|
CaO
|
S
|
|
1.7 ± 0.4
|
0.45 ± 0.15
|
6.0 ± 1.0
|
0.40 ± 0.15
|
0.30 ± 0.12
|
0.20 ± 0.05
|
Figures for other
varieties are less well established but differ little from the above.
|
Nutrient uptake - Macronutrients
|
|
Cultivar
|
Source
|
Bunch
yield t/ha/cycle
|
Sampling
|
kg/ha
|
|
|
|
|
|
N
|
P2O5
|
K2O
|
MgO
|
CaO
|
S
|
|
Pisang
Assam
|
Joseph,
1971
|
16
|
incomplete
m.p.(-pulp)
|
40
|
18
|
343
|
80
|
45
|
-
|
|
Gros
Michel
|
Martin-Prevel
et al., 1968
|
26
|
whole
matts
|
250
|
91
|
1 350
|
93
|
308
|
-
|
|
Dwarf
Cavendish
|
Martin-Prevel
et al., 1962
|
42
|
mother
plants only
|
225
|
55
|
1 004
|
27-
|
122
|
-
|
|
Plantains
(3cvs)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
min.
|
Marchal
et al, 1979
|
32
|
whole
matts
|
180
|
49
|
1 145
|
58
|
133
|
14
|
|
max.
|
|
48
|
|
226
|
69
|
1 625
|
66
|
196
|
20
|
|
Popoulou
|
Marchal
et al, 1970
|
44
|
whole
matts
|
370
|
108
|
2 440
|
114
|
252
|
31
|
|
Poyo,
grand Nain
|
Martin-Prevel
et al., 1965-66
Twyford et
al., 1973-76
|
35-57
|
m.p.,
aver. Values
|
250
|
57
|
964
|
100
|
210
|
15
|
|
Robusta
|
Twyford
et al, 1973-76
|
50
|
whole
matts, extrapolated values
|
450
|
309+
|
2 109+
|
390+
|
420+
|
144
|
|
Poyo
|
Martin-Prevel
et al., 1968
|
66
|
whole
matts
|
450
|
70
|
1 500
|
80-
|
200
|
-
|
|
Grand
Nain
|
Marchal
et al, 1979
|
69
|
whole
matts
|
293
|
69
|
1 325
|
108
|
224
|
29
|
|
Americani
|
Marchal
et al, 1979
|
75
|
whole
matts
|
294
|
92
|
1 565
|
124
|
266
|
36
|
|
Nanicao
|
Gallo
et al, 1972
|
77
|
incompl.
m.p (- corm, roots)
|
264
|
73
|
1 265
|
104
|
224
|
11
|
|
Poyo
= Robusta, Valery (giant Cavendish) Grand Nain, Americani, Nanicao
(semi-giant Cavendish)
Full références
in : Martin-Plevel, 1980, 1987
m .p. :=
mother plants ; whole plants = mother plants + all existing
followers
+ probably
overestimated ; - Mg-deficient sites ; Also Cl = 300 kg/ha
(Gallo et al., 1972)
|
|
Nutrient uptake - Micronutrients
|
|
Cultivar
|
Source
|
Bunch
yield t/ha/cycle
|
Sampling
|
kg/ha
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fe
|
Mn
|
Zn
|
Cu
|
B
|
Mo
|
|
Robusta
|
Twyford
et al, 1968
|
-
|
mother
plants only
|
2.7
|
4.3
|
0.47
|
0.18
|
0.84
|
-
|
|
Poyo
|
Marchal
et al, 1971-72
|
32-57
|
mother
plants only
|
4-15
|
4-9
|
(0.3)
|
(0.1)
|
-
|
-
|
|
Robusta
|
Twyford
et al, 1973-76
|
50
|
whole
matts, extrapolated values
|
4.5
|
26+
|
0.61
|
0.22
|
0.62
|
-
|
|
Nanicao
|
Gallo
et al, 1972
|
77
|
incomplete
mother plants (- corm, roots)
|
3.06
|
6.85
|
0.36
|
0.12
|
0.37
|
0.0013
|
|
Poyo
= Robusta ; Nanicao giant (semi-Cavendish)
Full
references in : Martin-Prevel, 1980-1987
+ probably
overestimated ; Also Na = 4.2 kg/ha ; Al = 2.8 kg/ha
(Gallo et al., 1972)
|
Total uptake in
normal conditions is, on the basis of available information:
|
Total nutrient uptake (normal growth conditions) -
Macronutrients
|
|
Variety
|
kg/t whole bunch
|
|
|
N
|
P2O5
|
K2O
|
MgO
|
CaO
|
S
|
|
Cavendish
group
|
4-7
|
0.9-1.6
|
18-30
|
1.2-3.6
|
3-7.5
|
0.4-0.8
|
|
Other
varieties
|
up to 10
|
up to 3.5
|
up to 60
|
1.2-3.6
|
up to 12
|
0.4-0.8
|
Variations are due
to the harvest index (much higher for the Cavendish group than for many
other varieties), nutrient status (except nitrogen, the nutrient content
of fruit is less affected than that of other plant parts by deficiency
or excess) and the de-suckering technique. The figures given are for
total net uptake at the harvesting stage: they do not include amounts
lost in pruning/de-suckering, or wilting of older leaves, or through
leaching by rainfall. Note that roots may account for 5-10 % of the
total uptake, and corm 10-12 % (5 % in the case of CaO).
K absorption is
largest during bunch growth (hidden and visible); N and P continous
uptake from planting (or sucker start) to bunch emergence.
Plant analysis data
The International
Reference Sampling (IRS) method, which was agreed at a conference held
in the Canary Islands in 1975, requires leaf samples to comprise inner
(i.e. closest to the midrib) exact halves of strips taken from both
sides of the lamina and at its exact mid-length, from the third youngest
fully expanded leaf either at full bunch emission (all female hands and
no more than three male hands being visible) or at approximate floral
initiation. Because the choice of sample is highly critical, published
data and the basis of other sampling methods or where the sampling
method is not clearly stated should be treated with great caution and
tested against IRS data by the user to obtain conversion tables.
Unfortunately, not
enough experience has been accumulated with the IRS method to be able to
assess definitely all its standards. The table below includes, in
italics, some non-IRS data where sufficient information was available
for conversion to be practicable, and, in parenthesis, values expressed
as mere orders of magnitude where such conversion was not possible.
|
Leaf analysis standards (International Reference Sample -
IRS) - Macronutrients
|
|
Plant
growth stage
|
Nutritional
status
|
% of dry matter
|
|
|
|
N
|
P
|
K*
|
Mg*
|
Ca*
|
S
|
Cl
|
|
Around
flower initiation
|
Deficient
(symptoms)
|
<2.3
|
0.12
|
1.9
|
0.15-0.24
|
0.4(°)
|
0.21
|
-
|
|
|
Low
|
2.3-3.3
|
0.13
|
<4.5
|
0.25-0.29
|
-
|
0.21-0.25
|
-
|
|
|
Optimum
|
3.3-3.7
|
>0.14
|
4.5-5.0
|
0.30-0.40
|
0.8-1.3
|
>0.25
|
(1.0)
|
|
|
High
(luxury)
|
>3.7
|
-
|
>5.0
|
>0.40
|
>1.3
|
-
|
(2.0)
|
|
|
Excess
(toxicity)
|
-
|
0.3
|
5.5-6.5
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
(3.5)
|
|
Just
fully expanded bunch
|
Deficient
(symptoms)
|
1.6-2.1
|
-
|
1.3-2.6
|
0.07-0.25
|
0.15
|
-
|
-
|
|
|
Low
|
2.0-2.5
|
0.12-0.16
|
2.7-3.2
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
|
Optimum
|
2.7-3.6
|
0.16-0.27
|
3.2-5.4
|
0.27-0.60
|
0.66-1.20
|
0.16-0.30
|
0.9-1.8
|
|
|
High
(luxury)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
>2.0
|
|
|
Excess
(toxicity)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
3.5
|
|
*
K:Mg:Ca and K:N equilibria also to be considered.
Optimum for K:Mg:Ca in gramm-equivalents = 52-60:16-25:2-29.
(°) Up to 0.7 for first cycle issured from big corms
|
|
Italics:
recalculated from non-IRS results (Martin-Prevel, 1987, and
internal reports by IRFA/CIRAD)
Normal: figures used by J. Marchal for current practice by IRFA/CIRAD
Between brackets:order of magnitude (acc. Lahav and Turner, 1983,
and Soto, 1985)
|
|
Leaf analysis standards (International Reference Sample -
IRS) - Micronutrients
|
|
Plant
growth stage
|
Nutritional
status
|
ppm dry matter
|
|
|
|
Fe
|
Mn
|
Zn
|
Cu
|
B
|
Na
|
|
Around
flower initiation
|
Deficient
(symptoms)
|
77
|
25-100
|
14-(°)37
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
|
Low
|
-
|
110-150
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
<100
|
|
|
Optimum
|
>100
|
160-2 500
|
>20
|
(9)
|
(11)
|
-
|
|
|
High
(luxury)
|
-
|
>2 500
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
>100
|
|
|
Excess
(toxicity)
|
300
|
>4 800
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
>300
|
|
Just
fully expanded bunch
|
Deficient
(symptoms)
|
-
|
40-150
|
6-17
|
<5?
|
<10?
|
-
|
|
|
Low
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
< 60
|
|
|
Optimum
|
80-360
|
200-1 800
|
20-50
|
6-30
|
10-25
|
-
|
|
|
High
(luxury)
|
-
|
2 000-3 000
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
>150
|
|
|
Excess
(toxicity)
|
-
|
>3 000
|
-
|
-
|
30-100
|
up to 3 500
|
|
P/Zn
ratio (high in case of Zn deficiency) to be preferably considered
Italics: recalculated from non-IRS results (Martin-Prevel, 1987,
and internal reports by IRFA/CIRAD)
Normal: figures used by J. Marchal for current practice by IRFA/CIRAD
Between brackets: order of magnitude (acc. Lahav and Turner, 1983,
and Soto, 1985)
|
Fertilizer recommendations
Whilst N and K
should be supplied according to the very high biomass requirements of
the crop, attention must be given to maintaining an appropriate soil
cationic balance. On most soil types this means (with pH around 6.0)
about 80 % CEC saturation by K, Mg and Ca in the approximate proportions
1:3:6. Dressings of dolomite and/or limestone, for incorporation into
the soil, should be calculated so as to achieve and maintain these
proportions in the top 20 cm of soil. On highly unsaturated soils with a
high cation exchange capacity, this may seldom be possible, in which
case attention should be given principally to the K:Mg ratio, which
should never exceed 1:2 in ferrallitic or sandy soils or 1:1 in volcanic
or organic soils. The level of exchangeable K should preferably be
raised to about 10 % of the total exchangeable cations by a basal
application in the first year and subsequently maintained by dressings
calculated to compensate for removals and leaching losses.
The amounts of N and
K2O to be given to a plant crop should be calculated from the expected
yield on a particular field and the total uptake per metric ton of whole
bunches as quoted earlier. N application should be split into a number
of dressings so as to provide a continuous supply from planting right
through to harvest, with smaller and more frequent dressings where the
risk of loss by leaching is higher (Godefroy et al, 1989), ranging from
intervals of 1-3 months in relatively dry climates down to every 2-4
weeks in the humid tropics with suitable modification in seasons of high
growth potential or in seasons affected by cold or drought. Subject to
the demands of maintaining a correct cationic balance, the K application
is generally divided in a rather similar manner to that of N except that
dressings should be smaller at the beginning of the growth period and
increased during the months immediately before and after flowering.
Similar calculations
may be made for ratoon crops, making due allowance for the large losses
resulting from chopping down the mother plants, and the more rapid
growth during a shorter time period. In practice, the same average
monthly rates as for the plant crop are generally adopted.
Preferred nutrient forms
Given adequate S,
the cheapest forms of N and K fertilizers available may be used.
Potassium nitrate, although acceptable in theory, is scarcely ever used
except in irrigation water, due to its high cost and liability to loss
by leaching. Where there is a need for added S, this can be given either
in the form of a sulphate-based N fertilizer or, preferably on acid
soils, potassium sulphate, so that S would account for 3-5 % of the
total input unless abundant organic manure is used. Double K-Mg
sulphates (Patentkali, etc) are useful where Mg deficiency is incipient.
The preferred form of P depends on soil pH and P-fixation capacity.
Where appropriate, rock phosphates can contribute, with lime and/or
dolomite, towards CEC saturation; and low-P compound fertilizers are
convenient except on soils where P-fixation capacity is high.
Present fertilizer practices
Departures from
recommended usage often result in low yields, through under-use, or in
poor quality and uneconomic production due to imbalanced or over-use or
incorrect timing.
Organic manures are
excellent for improving soil conditions and provide variable amounts of
macronutrients, which must be taken into account if imbalances are to be
avoided; they may also supply all the micronutrients needed. Cattle or
chicken manures, at rates of 35-120 t/ha, are widely used in some
countries, and in others, residues such as coffee pulp, cacao shells and
composted town refuse, while copious mulching with grasses or branches
has been common practice for decades in many regions. Where high yields
are obtained by using only mineral fertilizers, the soil organic matter
content can be improved by returning around 200 t/ha/year of plant
residues, but care must be taken to ensure that adequate amounts of all
macro- and micronutrients are provided.
N fertilizer is used
almost everywhere unless abundant organic manure is applied; but even
with abundant manure application K fertilizer must also be given except
on volcanic soils containing very high reserves. Mg is considered the
third most important nutrient, whether incorporated in a soil amendment
or broadcast as a straight fertilizer (Epsom salts or kieserite) or in
mixed or compound fertilizers.
Most fertilizers are
hand-spread except when basal dressings are incorporated during land
preparation. However, there is considerable controversy over the best
method of placement. With good control of nematodes and soil aeration,
an even broadcast would appear more logical, but applications in
practice are often concentrated within a circle of 1.0-1.5 m diameter
around the pseudo-stem, or (after flowering) in a crescent shape around
the daughter plants. In mechanized fields the fertilizers are often
spread along the rows.
Foliar feeding is
efficient with the right nutrients and wetting agents. It is preferably
used successfully for micronutrients, especially when they can be mixed
with the aerial oil-fungicide sprays regularly applied against Sigatoka
disease in tropical climates. Rates of 5-10 kg/ha Zn, B or Mn (in
descending order of importance) applied in this way once to three times
a year are sufficient, instead of soil applications of 20 kg/ha or more
which are often ineffective because of blocking antagonisms.
Some individual
growers apply amounts up to 1 200 kg/ha N, 800 kg/ha P2O5, 1 800 kg/ha
K2O yearly, but the most common practices for Cavendish cultivars in
various countries are summarised in the following table. The higher
figures correspond broadly with the highest yields. The less productive
stands, whether of Cavendish or other cultivars, receive less fertilizer
but are less profitable.
|
Present fertilizer practices for "Cavendish"
cultivars with good average yields unless differently stated
|
|
Region/Country
|
kg/ha/year
|
Other
elements - Remarks (kg respect. t/ha)
|
|
|
N
|
P2O5
|
K2O
|
|
|
Africa
|
|
Cameroon
|
140-400
|
0
|
0-(800)
|
no
K necessary on young volcanic soils, fertilizers must contain S
|
|
Cote
d'Ivoire
|
|
|
|
|
|
-
peat soils
|
100-330
|
30-100
|
700-1600
|
5-10
Cu, 500-2 000 dolomite
|
|
-
other soils
|
300-500
|
30-100
|
600-1200
|
500-
2000 dolomite
|
|
South
Africa
|
140-500
|
0-100
|
750-1600
|
organic
manure 0-120 tons
|
|
Canary
Is.
|
|
|
|
|
|
-
drip irrigat.
|
500-600
|
200-300
|
700-1000
|
organic
or plastic mulch
|
|
-
surf. irrigat.
|
600-800
|
300-450
|
900-1500
|
organic
mulch
|
|
Morocco,
greenhouses
|
440-750
|
0-285
|
800-1600
|
10-25
Mn, 0-200 MgO, 0-150 S manure
|
|
Egypt
|
380-2 500
|
55-300
|
0-950
|
org.
manure - low yields without K
|
|
Middle
East, Asia, Oceania
|
|
Israel
|
|
|
|
|
|
-
coastal plain
|
400
|
200
|
1440
|
organic
manure (*)
|
|
-
Jordan valley
|
400
|
90
|
0
|
org.
manure - no K necessary (*)
|
|
India
|
300-600
|
320-345
|
340-720
|
organic
manure (*)
|
|
Taiwan
|
400
|
115
|
900
|
(*)
|
|
Australia
|
|
|
|
|
|
-
N Territories
|
110
|
230
|
760
|
(*)
|
|
-
Queensland
|
280-370
|
160-460
|
480-1560
|
(*)
|
|
-
N.S. Wales
|
180
|
90-230
|
360- 720
|
(*)
|
|
Latin
America and Caribbean
|
|
Brazil
|
|
|
|
|
|
-
Sao Paulo
|
250-500
|
125-240
|
500-950
|
|
|
-
other states
|
0- 80
|
0- 50
|
0-120
|
not
"Cavendish", yield 5-20 t/ha
|
|
Costa
Rica
|
300-450
|
0-160
|
600-750
|
50-200
MgO, 500-600 CaO
|
|
Honduras
|
290
|
0
|
0
|
no
K necessary on most soils (*)
|
|
Martinique,
Guadeloupe
|
|
|
|
|
|
-
andosoils andrecent pumices
|
300-700
|
0-180
|
800-1350
|
80-270
MgO, 150-400 CaO
|
|
-
other soils
|
250-600
|
0-150
|
600-1600
|
CaO
according to soil analysis
|
|
Jamaica
|
225
|
150
|
560
|
(*)
|
|
Sources:
(*) Lahav and Turner, 1983 - Others: personal records and IRFA/CIRAD
reports
|
Further reading
GODEFROY, J.; MARCHAL, J.; NAVILLE,
R.: Fertilisation des cultures fruitières en Afrique intertropicale.
Fruits 40 (5), 327-344 (1985)
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Author: P. Martin-Prevel, Institut
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